{"id":14512,"date":"2018-02-13T03:38:00","date_gmt":"2018-02-13T03:38:00","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2020-09-25T02:42:46","modified_gmt":"2020-09-25T02:42:46","slug":"mostenirea-independenta-caracterelor","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/rubyskynews.com\/index.php\/2018\/02\/13\/mostenirea-independenta-caracterelor\/","title":{"rendered":"Mo\u015ftenirea independent\u0103 a caracterelor"},"content":{"rendered":"<div style=\"margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;\" class=\"sharethis-inline-share-buttons\" ><\/div><h3 class=\"post-title entry-title\" itemprop=\"headline\" style=\"background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Oswald, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.1; margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; position: relative;\"><\/h3>\n<div class=\"post-body entry-content\" id=\"post-body-6639926943282334601\" style=\"background-color: white; color: #555555; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.7; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; width: 615px;\">Legile de baz\u0103 ale eredit\u0103\u0163ii au fost descoperite de Gregor Mendel, care a efectuat experien\u0163e pe diferite soiuri (22 de soiuri) de maz\u0103re (Pisum sativum). Aceste soiuri se caracterizau printr-o serie de tr\u0103s\u0103turi distinctive dup\u0103 culoarea florii, forma bobului, culoarea bobului etc. G.Mendel a folosit metoda hibridologic\u0103, care se bazeaz\u0103 pe \u00eencruci\u015farea formelor parentale \u015fi pe analiza descenden\u0163ei.<br \/>\u00cenainte de a analiza legile eredit\u0103\u0163ii, ne vom familiariza cu simbolica genetic\u0103.P \u2013 p\u0103rin\u0163i; x \u2013 \u00eencruci\u015farea;\u2640 &#8211; genotipul femel; F1,2,3 \u2026. \u2013 genera\u0163ia (1,2,3,\u2026);\u2642 &#8211; genotipul mascul; A(+) \u2013 alela dominant\u0103 a genei;a \u2013 alela recesiv\u0103 a genei; AA(aa) \u2013 genotip homozigotat dup\u0103 caracterul dominant (recesiv);Aa \u2013 genotip heterozigotat dup\u0103 un caracter.Homozigot (din gr. \u201chomoios\u201d \u2013 asem\u0103n\u0103tor, \u201czygotos\u201d \u2013 \u00eempreunat) se nume\u015fte individul care are gene similare la aceia\u015fi loci din cromozomii omologi, rezultat al unirii a doi game\u0163i identici (W.Bateson, E.Saunders, 1902). Homozigo\u0163ii formeaz\u0103 un tip de game\u0163i \u015fi nu segreg\u0103 \u00een genera\u0163iile urm\u0103toare.Heterozigot (din gr. \u201cheteros\u201d \u2013 altul, \u201czygotos\u201d &#8211; \u00eempreunat) se nume\u015fte individul care are alele diferite \u00een locii omologi de pe cromozomii perechi, rezultat al unirii unor game\u0163i genetic deosebi\u0163i (W.Bateson, E.Saunders, 1902). Heterozigo\u0163ii formeaz\u0103 diverse tipuri de game\u0163i \u015fi segreg\u0103 \u00een genera\u0163iile urm\u0103toare.Se deosebesc diferite tipuri de mo\u015ftenire a caracterelor (fig.1)<\/p>\n<p>Fig.1. Tipurile de mo\u015ftenire a caracterelor.\u00cen continuare vom analiza mo\u015ftenirea caracterelor \u00een cazul \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii monohibride (indivizii ini\u0163iali se deosebesc printr-o pereche de caractere).De men\u0163ionat c\u0103 G.Mendel a folosit ca obiect de studiu maz\u0103rea de gr\u0103din\u0103 (Risum sativum) care are o serie de avantaje, \u015fi anume:- este o plant\u0103 autogam\u0103 cu o structur\u0103 a florii care exclude orice polenizare str\u0103in\u0103 \u00eent\u00e2mpl\u0103toare;- permite suprimarea staminelor \u00eenainte de maturarea polenului \u015fi polenizarea stigmatului \u00een mod dirijat;- descenden\u0163a ob\u0163inut\u0103 \u00een urma \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rilor este fertil\u0103;- este o plant\u0103 cu o perioad\u0103 de vegeta\u0163ie scurt\u0103;- posed\u0103 o serie de caractere bine conturate care se transmit urma\u015filor;- existau numeroase soiuri de maz\u0103re bine valorificate.G.Mendel a analizat o gam\u0103 variat\u0103 de caractere, \u00een special calitative:- forma neted\u0103 sau zb\u00e2rcit\u0103 a bobului;- culoarea galben\u0103 sau verde a bobului;- floarea \u015fi coaja bobului colorate sau floarea \u015fi coaja bobului incolore;- culoarea verde sau galben\u0103 a p\u0103st\u0103ilor nemature;- flori dispersate pe tulpin\u0103 sau aglomerate c\u0103tre v\u00e2rf;- talia \u00eenalt\u0103 sau pitic\u0103 a plantei etc.La \u00eencruci\u015farea a dou\u0103 forme de maz\u0103re care difer\u0103 printr-o pereche de gene (forma bobului, culoarea bobului, \u00een\u0103l\u0163imea plantei etc.), G.Mendel a ob\u0163inut \u00een prima genera\u0163ie o descenden\u0163\u0103 uniform\u0103 dup\u0103 caracterul dominant (forma neted\u0103 a bobului, \u00een\u0103l\u0163imea \u00eenalt\u0103 a plantei).Prin caracter (din gr. \u201ckharakter\u201d \u2013 semn distinctiv) se \u00een\u0163elege tr\u0103s\u0103tura fenotipic\u0103 prin care pot fi deosebi\u0163i hibrizii (W.Bateson, 1907). \u00cen func\u0163ie de ceea ce reprezint\u0103, caracterele pot fi discontinue (calitative sau oligogene) \u015fi continue (cantitative sau poligene).Caracterul ce predomin\u0103 \u00een prima genera\u0163ie este denumit caracter dominant, spre deosebire de caracterul reprimat, numit recesiv.La autopolenizarea plantelor hibride ale primei genera\u0163ii (Aa), \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua s-au ob\u0163inut plante cu boabe galbene \u015fi plante cu boabe verzi, dar \u00eentr-un raport de 3:1 (fig.2).La analiza altor perechi de caractere G.Mendel a ob\u0163inut acela\u015fi raport de aproximativ 3:1 dup\u0103 fenotip (tabelul 1).G.Mendel explic\u0103 acest mod de segregare prin prezen\u0163a \u00een nucleul celulelor a unor factori ereditari sub form\u0103 de pereche. Plantele homozigote cu boabele colorate \u015fi cele cu boabele incolore con\u0163in exclusiv factori ereditari pereche, ce determin\u0103 caracterele respective. La formarea game\u0163ilor (din gr. \u201cgamete\u201d \u2013 so\u0163ie, \u201cgametes\u201d &#8211; so\u0163), \u00een timpul meiozei, are loc separarea factorilor ereditari, astfel \u00eenc\u00e2t fiecare gamet prime\u015fte c\u00e2te un singur factor ereditar. Din aceste considerente, game\u0163ii sunt totdeauna puri din punct de vedere genetic. Anume la aceast\u0103 legitate a ajuns prin experien\u0163ele sale G. Mendel.<\/p>\n<p>Tabelul 1Segregarea caracterelor \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua (F2) \u00een experien\u0163ele lui G. Mendel<br \/>Caractere studiate Caractere Nr.de descenden\u0163i Raportul domin. recesive domin. recesivi domin. recesiv 1. Culoarea boabelor2. Culoarea cotiledoanelor3. Forma boabelor4. Culoarea p\u0103st\u0103ilor5. Consisten\u0163a p\u0103st\u0103ilor6. Pozi\u0163ia florilor7. Forma plantelor colorategalben\u0103netedeverdetareaxial\u0103\u00eenalt\u0103 albeverdezb\u00e2rcitegalben\u0103moaleterminal\u0103pitic\u0103 70560225474428882651787 22420011850152299207277 3,043,002,992,952,993,032,96 0,961,001,011,051,011,061,04 Total<\/p>\n<p>14959 5010 2,99 1,01<br \/>Pentru explicarea \u015fi interpretarea rezultatelor experien\u0163elor sale am men\u0163ionat c\u0103 G.Mendel a presupus existen\u0163a unor factori interni materiali delimitabili. \u00cens\u0103 G.Mendel nu a f\u0103cut nici o referire la natura acestor factori ereditari \u015fi localizarea lor \u00een anumi\u0163i constituen\u0163i celulari.\u00cen acela\u015fi timp se acumulau date despre comportarea cromozomilor \u00een mitoz\u0103 \u015fi meioz\u0103, precum \u015fi despre rolul lor \u00een transmiterea ereditar\u0103 de la o genera\u0163ie la alta. La un moment dat, at\u00e2t cromozomilor, c\u00e2t \u015fi factorilor ereditari alelomorfi li se acorda un rol important \u00een ereditate. \u00cen mod normal, s-a pus \u00eentrebarea dac\u0103 nu exist\u0103 vreo leg\u0103tur\u0103 \u00eentre aceste dou\u0103 entit\u0103\u0163i.R\u0103spunsul la aceast\u0103 \u00eentrebare a venit dup\u0103 anul 1900, c\u00e2nd au fost redescoperite principiile mendeliene de mo\u015ftenire a caracterelor.W.S.Sutton \u00een SUA (1903) \u015fi T.Boveri \u00een Germania (1904), confrunt\u00e2nd datele genetice cu cele citologice, au ajuns la concluzia c\u0103 genele se g\u0103sesc \u00een cromozomi. Fiecare gen\u0103 are un loc precis \u00eentr-un anumit cromozom, unde diferite gene sunt dispuse liniar. Astfel a ap\u0103rut teoria cromozomial\u0103 a eredit\u0103\u0163ii, care cu timpul a suferit \u015fi ea unele complet\u0103ri.Se \u015ftie c\u0103 \u00een game\u0163i num\u0103rul de cromozomi este \u00eenjum\u0103t\u0103\u0163it. \u00cen timpul meiozei are loc migrarea liber\u0103 \u015fi \u00eent\u00e2mpl\u0103toare a cromozomilor spre cei doi poli ai celulei. Spre poli migreaz\u0103 c\u00e2te un cromozom din fiecare pereche de cromozomi omologi.Num\u0103rul de game\u0163i care pot fi forma\u0163i de un anumit genotip se determin\u0103 dup\u0103 formula 2n, unde n reprezint\u0103 num\u0103rul de perechi de caractere heterozigotate din acest genotip.Din cele men\u0163ionate se desprind urm\u0103toarele concluzii (legi):1. La \u00eencruci\u015farea indivizilor homozigota\u0163i, care se deosebesc dup\u0103 unul sau mai multe caractere, \u00een prima genera\u0163ie(F1) se ob\u0163ine uniformitate dup\u0103 caracterul dominant (Legea uniformit\u0103\u0163ii primei genera\u0163ii).2. La \u00eencruci\u015farea hibrizilor primei genera\u0163ii, care se deosebesc dup\u0103 un caracter (Aa), segregarea dup\u0103 fenotip \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua (F2) are loc \u00een raport de 3:1 (Legea segreg\u0103rii). Folosind simbolurile genetice \u015fi grila lui Punnet (1905), putem reconstrui experien\u0163ele lui G.Mendel.P \u2640 AA x \u2642 aa AA \u2013 boabe colorate aa \u2013 boabe incolore<\/p>\n<p>[Image]<\/p>\n<p>\u2642\u2640 a F1 A Aa<\/p>\n<p>Toate plantele aveau boabe colorate (uniformitatea primei genera\u0163ii).<\/p>\n<p>P \u2640 Aa x \u2642 Aa [Image] \u2642\u2640 A a Dup\u0103 fenotip ob\u0163inem raportul3A-:1aa (75% de plante cu F2 A<br \/>AAb.colorate Aab.colorate Boabe colorate : 25% de plante cu boabe incolore).<br \/>a<br \/>Aab.colorate aab.incolore<br \/>Dup\u0103 genotip ob\u0163inem raportul 1AA:2Aa:1aa (25%:50%:25%).Ca urmare a experien\u0163elor efectuate cu plantele ce se deosebeau dup\u0103 dou\u0103 sau mai multe perechi de caractere (\u00eencruci\u015farea di- \u015fi polihibrid\u0103), G.Mendel a ajuns la formularea legii segreg\u0103rii independente a caracterelor. Schema segreg\u0103rii independente a dou\u0103 perechi de caractere (bob galben \u015fi neted \u015fi bob verde \u015fi zb\u00e2rcit), realizat\u0103 de G.Mendel, este prezentat\u0103 \u00een fig.3.G.Mendel a \u00eencruci\u015fat un soi de maz\u0103re cu boabe galbene \u015fi netede (caractere dominante \u2013AABB) cu un soi cu boabe verzi \u015fi zb\u00e2rcite (caractere recesive \u2013 aabb). \u00cen prima genera\u0163ie (F1) se ob\u0163inea doar maz\u0103re cu boabe galbene \u015fi netede (diheterozigo\u0163i \u2013 AaBb), \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua (F2) G.Mendel a c\u0103p\u0103tat patru clase fenotipice de maz\u0103re. Din cele 556 de boabe ob\u0163inute 315 erau galbene netede, 101 galbene zb\u00e2rcite, 108 verzi netede \u015fi 32 verzi zb\u00e2rcite. Aceste clase, dup\u0103 cum se observ\u0103, s-au ob\u0163inut \u00eentr-un anumit raport, \u015fi anume: 9A-B-: 3A-bb-: 3aaB-: 1aabb (9:3:3:1).9\/16 din combina\u0163ii erau cu boabe galbene \u015fi netede (1AABB, 2AaBB, 2AABb, 4AaBb);3\/16 \u2013 cu boabe galbene, zb\u00e2rcite (1Aabb, 2Aabb); 3\/16 \u2013 cu boabe verzi, netede (1aaBB, 2aaBb);1\/16 \u2013 cu boabe verzi, zb\u00e2rcite (1aabb).Apari\u0163ia noilor fenotipuri \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua (F2) se explic\u0103 prin faptul c\u0103 hibrizii \u2013 diheterozigota\u0163i (AaBb) formeaz\u0103 patru tipuri de game\u0163i (AB, Ab, aB, ab), at\u00e2t masculi, c\u00e2t \u015fi femele, care pe baz\u0103 de hazard formeaz\u0103 cele 16 combina\u0163ii men\u0163ionate.<br \/>[Image]Fig.3. Schema segreg\u0103rii independente \u00een cazul \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii dihibride(dup\u0103 culoarea \u015fi forma boabelor de maz\u0103re).Dac\u0103 lu\u0103m \u00een considera\u0163ie numai o pereche de caractere (dup\u0103 cum a f\u0103cut \u015fi G.Mendel), fiecare pereche segreg\u0103 \u00een raport de 3:1 (12 combina\u0163ii cu boabele galbene \u015fi 4 cu boabele zb\u00e2rcite).G.Mendel a comparat rezultatele ob\u0163inute experimental cu cele teoretice preconizate, demonstr\u00e2nd c\u0103 ele sunt legice, \u015fi nu \u00eent\u00e2mpl\u0103toare.Dup\u0103 cum s-a men\u0163ionat, \u00een urma experien\u0163elor efectuate a fost posibil\u0103 deducerea legii segreg\u0103rii independente a perechilor de caractere:la \u00eencruci\u015farea formelor parentale, ce se deosebesc dup\u0103 dou\u0103 sau mai multe perechi de caractere, segregarea \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua (F2) are loc independent dup\u0103 fiecare pereche de caractere \u00een raport de (3:1)n, unde n este tipul \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii.Cercet\u0103rile lui G.Mendel \u015fi legile elaborate de el au avut o mare importan\u0163\u0103:- au pus bazele cunoa\u015fterii mecanismelor transmiterii caracterelor \u015fi \u00eensu\u015firilor la descenden\u0163i, presupun\u00e2nd existen\u0163a \u00een celulele sexuale a factorilor ereditari, responsabili de transmiterea caracterelor;- au pus bazele ob\u0163inerii dirijate a noilor soiuri de plante \u015fi rase de animale, c\u0103p\u0103t\u00e2nd noi combina\u0163ii de gene;- permit prognozarea rezultatelor diverselor tipuri de \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103ri. De men\u0163ionat \u00eens\u0103 c\u0103 legea segreg\u0103rii caracterelor este valabil\u0103 doar dac\u0103 sunt satisf\u0103cute o serie de condi\u0163ii, \u015fi anume, genele ce determin\u0103 caracterele respective:1) nu posed\u0103 semidominan\u0163\u0103;2) sunt localizate \u00een cromozomi diferi\u0163i (nu sunt \u00eenl\u0103n\u0163uite);3) sunt localizate \u00een autozomi (nu sunt cuplate cu sexul);4) nu interac\u0163ioneaz\u0103 \u00eentre ele (interac\u0163iunea poate fi at\u00e2t \u00eentre genele alele, c\u00e2t \u015fi \u00eentre genele nealele).Pentru verificarea genotipurilor participante la \u00eencruci\u015fare se utilizeaz\u0103 pe larg \u00eencruci\u015farea de analiz\u0103 sau retro\u00eencruci\u015farea.Retro\u00eencruci\u015farea (FB) (backcrossul sau test crossul) reprezint\u0103 testarea unui fenotip cu genotip necunoscut ca rezultat al \u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii lui cu un organism test recesiv \u015fi segregarea lui specific\u0103 ulterioar\u0103.S\u0103 analiz\u0103m un exemplu concret. \u00cen cazul experien\u0163elor lui G.Mendel, la \u00eencruci\u015farea diheterozigo\u0163ilor (AaBb) \u00eentre ei, \u00een genera\u0163ia a doua s-au c\u0103p\u0103tat 9\/16 de plante care aveau boabele de culoarea galben\u0103 \u015fi bobul neted (A-B-). Aceast\u0103 clas\u0103 fenotipic\u0103 era compus\u0103 din 4 tipuri de genotipuri, \u015fi anume: AABB; AaBB; AABb \u015fi AaBb. \u00cen cazul c\u00e2nd nu se \u015ftie genotipul organismului analizat, se efectueaz\u0103 retro\u00eencruci\u015farea. \u00cen acest caz vom avea 4 variante de rezultate.<br \/>1) P \u2640 AABB x \u2642 aabb<\/p>\n<p>[Image]<\/p>\n<p>\u2642\u2640 ab FB AB AaBb b.galbene, netede 100% Concluzie: Dac\u0103 \u00een urma retro\u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii (FB) s-au ob\u0163inut uniformitate dup\u0103 caracterele dominante, atunci genotipul necunoscut este homozigot dup\u0103 ambele caractere dominante (AABB).<br \/>2) P \u2640 AaBB x \u2642 aabb b.galbene, b.verzi, netede zb\u00e2rcite<\/p>\n<p>[Image]<\/p>\n<p>\u2642\u2640 ab FB AB AaBb b.galbene, netede 50%<br \/>aB aaBb b.verzi, netede 50%<br \/>Concluzie: Dac\u0103 \u00een urma retro\u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii (FB) s-a c\u0103p\u0103tat un raport de 50%:50% (1:1), atunci genotipul necunoscut este heterozigot dup\u0103 caracterul care segreg\u0103 \u015fi homozigot dup\u0103 caracterul dominant care nu segreg\u0103 (AaBB).3) P \u2640 AABb x \u2642 aabb b.galbene, b.verzi, netede zb\u00e2rcite<\/p>\n<p>[Image]<\/p>\n<p>\u2642\u2640 ab FB AB AaBb b.galbene, netede 50%<br \/>Ab Aabb b.galbene, zb\u00e2rcite 50%<\/p>\n<p>Concluzie: Vezi concluzia din cazul 2 cu unele concretiz\u0103ri (AABb). 4) P \u2640 AaBb x \u2642 aabb b. galbene, b.verzi, netede zb\u00e2rcite [Image]FB \u2642\u2640 ab<br \/>AB AaBb b. galbene, netede 25%<br \/>Ab Aabb b. galbene, zb\u00e2rcite 25%<br \/>aB aaBb b. verzi, netede 25%<br \/>ab aabb b. verzi, zb\u00e2rcite 25%<br \/>Concluzie: Dac\u0103 \u00een urma retro\u00eencruci\u015f\u0103rii (FB) s-a ob\u0163inut un raport de 25%:25%:25%:25% (1:1:1:1), atunci genotipul necunoscut este heterozigot dup\u0103 dou\u0103 perechi de caractere (AaBb).<\/div>\n<div style=\"margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;\" class=\"sharethis-inline-share-buttons\" ><\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Legile de baz\u0103 ale eredit\u0103\u0163ii au fost descoperite de Gregor Mendel, care a efectuat experien\u0163e pe diferite soiuri (22 de soiuri) de maz\u0103re (Pisum sativum). Aceste soiuri se caracterizau printr-o serie de tr\u0103s\u0103turi distinctive dup\u0103 culoarea florii, forma bobului, culoarea bobului etc. G.Mendel a folosit metoda hibridologic\u0103, care se bazeaz\u0103 pe \u00eencruci\u015farea formelor parentale \u015fi [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v21.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Mo\u015ftenirea independent\u0103 a caracterelor - Jobs\/ Internships\/ Scholarships\/<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/rubyskynews.com\/index.php\/2018\/02\/13\/mostenirea-independenta-caracterelor\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Mo\u015ftenirea independent\u0103 a caracterelor - Jobs\/ Internships\/ Scholarships\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Legile de baz\u0103 ale eredit\u0103\u0163ii au fost descoperite de Gregor Mendel, care a efectuat experien\u0163e pe diferite soiuri (22 de soiuri) de maz\u0103re (Pisum sativum). 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